Mark Minott is an Associate Professor and Chair of Arts and Humanities at the University College of the Cayman Islands. He is a graduate of the Edna Manley College of the Visual and Performing Arts and University of the West Indies, Jamaica, and the University of Nottingham and Surrey, United Kingdom. His research Interest is in the area of teacher education, music education, and reflective teaching.
Mark A. Minott
Chair of Arts and Humanities
University College of the Cayman Islands
P.O. Box 702, KY1-1107
Cayman Islands
345-623-0527
mminott@ucci.edu.ky
Introduction
Borg (2001) states that a belief about teaching is an idea consciously or unconsciously held. The individual accepts it as true and it serves as a guide to thoughts and behaviours. In other words, beliefs about teaching cause one to lean to a particular way of thinking and acting in the classroom (Richards, 1996). This thought corresponds with Tylee's (1992) idea. She points out that teachers need to understand their beliefs about teaching for these influenced the way they carry out their teaching.
While these writers spoke generally of the relationship between beliefs and teaching in the regular classroom, the actions of piano teachers are also driven by their beliefs about teaching. This is true of those who participated in this study, as will be shown later. However, for piano teachers, beliefs about teaching cluster around what they should know and do. For example Chinnapha (2007), and the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2001) made the point that piano teachers should be responsible for managing and monitoring student learning, they should also be aware of students' weaknesses and problems, know the subject they teach and how to teach the subject to students. Implicit in these statements is the belief that piano teachers should be knowledgeable about their subject area and function in a managerial and supervisory role. Also, piano students often articulate what they believe their teachers should know and do. For example, students believe that piano teachers should know many kinds of music and be able to explain and compare musical differences of each period and composers (Chinnapha, 2007).
Closely associated with teachers' beliefs are teaching strategies (Tylee, 1992; Richards 1996). These strategies - of which there are many - have both advantages and disadvantages. Examples of general teaching strategies includes: Lecture, Lecture with discussion, Small-group discussion, Brainstorming, and Individual Instruction (McCarthy, 1992). Piano teaching, however, is dominated by routines such as: students starting a lesson with warm-up exercises, allowing advanced students to teach beginners and giving advance students the freedom to experiment with their instruments so as to develop their own style of playing and the ability to engage in instrumental improvisation. These routines tend to occur within an individual/one-to-one, small-group, or to a lesser degree, computer-assisted learning framework (Dannenberg et al 1990; O'Neill 2003; Daniel 2004). Daniel (2004), arguing for the use of the small-group strategy in piano teaching at the tertiary level states:
The teaching of piano performance has, for many centuries, taken place predominantly within a one-to-one context, and often according to the master-apprenticeship relationship. However, this has not been the exclusive approach, and other forms of teaching such as the master class and group instruction have been in existence for some time. In general, however, the master class and group teaching appear to be adopted as additional forms of tuition to the one-to-one model, rather than as a principal methodology (p.23).
From Daniel's statement one can infer that individual/one-to-one teaching strategy has been the core of piano teaching and small-group teaching has been used as an "add-on" and not as the main teaching strategy.
There are advantages and disadvantages to the individual/one-to-one teaching strategy. Daniel (2004) points out that 'the one-to-one strategy generally promotes the transmission of information from teacher to student...' (p.35). While this is the main advantage, another is that it is teacher-centered and this should ensure that appropriate techniques are taught. Still another advantage is that students' individual needs can be studied and appropriately addressed. There seems to be very few disadvantages using the individual/one-to-one teaching strategy. The one identified most is that of boredom on the part of students, and this is sometimes attributed to the teacher's use of archaic teaching tools and/or techniques (Smitty, 2008; Seidova, 2011).
The advantage of utilizing a small-group teaching strategy is that it allows the participation of everyone, people are often more comfortable in small-groups and group consensus can be reached (McCarthy, 1992). Daniel (2004), points out additional advantages: it helps to create a holistic learning environment, increases greater level of interactions between teacher and students, and students are encouraged to be critical and active, which can result in the development of independent learning. Magrath (2006) outlines how small-group teaching might be practically utilized in piano teaching. She states that it should complement the individual/ one-to-one teaching strategy, focus on beginners and elementary students, and should be one hour in length. Disadvantages of this teaching strategy include the fact that it needs careful thought and must be planned according to the purpose of the group. The preparation process also includes the need to prepare specific tasks or questions for the group to answer which can be time consuming. Another disadvantage is, even with well-laid plans, the group may get side-tracked (McCarthy, 1992).
The introduction of music software has also impacted the way piano teachers teach. In addition to the traditional individual/one-to-one teaching and small-group strategies there is now computer assisted learning strategy. Computer software - similar to a small-group teaching strategy - is used to supplement the individual/one-to-one teaching strategy. Dannenberg et al (1990) in their study of the use of computer-based instruction to teach beginning piano students, made the point that the introduction of state-of-the-art musical computer software provides a stimulating learning environment that tailors instruction to the students' needs. This is of particular importance in an era which is saturated with student-centered thinking and teaching.
An integral aspect of teaching and learning generally, and for piano teaching specifically, is the assessment of students. Fredericks (2005) suggests that to assess a student is to gather information over a period of time about his/her level of performance, achievement or learning and understanding. Ferris and Hedgcock (1998) and Bryant (1992) point out that in the assessment process, written or mental records should be made of skills students have acquired and those on which they are working. Ferris and Hedgcock (1998), and Reid-James (1983) state that teachers, during assessment, need to ask themselves questions about students' response to, involvement in, and preparation for planned activities and learning new content.
Piano teachers do employ these and other forms of student assessment. For example, Montemayor (2008), in his study of a particular music studio, pointed out that students who did not attend a required performance were given a tape recording of it, and were expected to produce a typewritten report of what they learned from the recording, in order to maintain membership in the studio. The success of this kind of stringent assessment contributed to the excellent reputation of the studio. Montemayor (2008), cautioned the use of this kind of stringent assessment in piano studios, without the same kind of reputation or better.
This literature review discussed - from the perspective of piano teachers and general classroom teachers - the idea of teachers' beliefs and what constitutes teaching strategies and assessment methods. What is still unknown is what beliefs about teaching are held by local piano teachers in Jamaica? What teaching strategies do they utilize? What assessment methods do they utilize? This research explores these questions and uncovers: the beliefs held by two Jamaican piano teachers about piano teaching, their teaching strategies, and the process of student assessment they utilize. This is important because references to these aspects within the instrumental teaching literature are scarce. Additionally, there is no known local research which addresses these aspects in the Jamaican context.
Participants and Method
An instrumental case study approach was used. Creswell (1998) and Stake (2000) define an instrumental case study as a type of case study with the focus on a specific issue, rather than on the case itself. The case then becomes a vehicle to understand the issue or to provide insight into the concerns of the study.
Participants were two male piano teachers - Smith and Blake (pseudonyms). The process of purposeful convenient or opportunity sampling (Creswell, 1998) was utilised in their selection. This is based on the fact that I have known both teachers for a number of years. They have over two decades of experience teaching piano, and were willing to participate in the study.
Interview was the data collection method employed. The main instrument used for the collection of data was a semi-structured interview schedule. I chose to use interview, for there was the need to get in-depth information. However, another reason for employing this method is the fact that it provides the opportunity to include follow-up and supplementary questions thought of during the actual interview and used as necessary to illuminate or clarify, thus facilitating depth in responses (Joffe, 2001). Interviews focused on participants' experience and personal observations of their practice as piano teachers and were approximately one hour in length.
As indicated above, three broad research questions were formulated: What beliefs about piano teaching are held by local piano teachers in Jamaica? What teaching strategies do they utilize? What assessment methods do they utilize? The responses to these questions were analysed using content analysis, and despite the limitations of the sample size of this small-scale study, the responses produced rich data for analysis. Results of the process of analysis are used in the next section of this paper which discusses the findings. The discussion also utilizes the three research questions as a guide.
Results and Discussion
What participants believe about piano teaching?
The analysis of the responses to the question of what participants' believe about piano teaching revealed that both Smith and Blake believe that piano teachers should not attempt to teach what they are unable to manage. When asked to elaborate on this point, both state that they believe that piano teachers should be strong in content and pedagogic knowledge. This is important because both are essential to the artistic development of piano students (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2001; Chinnapha, 2007). Further probing reveals that essentially, they believe that piano teachers should only teach at the level (i.e. beginner, intermediate or advance) for which they were trained or, in which they had some expertise. This belief influenced their practice, for Smith, who is the holder of the Licentiate of the Royal School of Music (LRSM) degree, teaches beginners through to advanced students, while Blake who does not have such a prestigious qualification, confines his teaching to beginners and intermediate students.
Smith made the point that he believed strongly in the importance of students practicing their instrument and that they should be supervised during the process.
I do believe in the importance of practice for students. However, I also believe that they should be monitored both here at the studio and at home. They must also be given the opportunity to perform publically. I sometimes give promising students - who perform well and who are finding it hard to pay fees - the opportunity to continue their lessons until they are able to pay the fees (Smith).
The importance of practice is also highlighted by Montemayor (2008), for it was a requirement for the studio that he studied. In addition, students were required to perform at selected public performances.
There is also the belief that an effectively operated piano studio should have certain equipment which aids teaching and learning. Blake states:
I believe that a studio can only be efficient in its operations if it has a listening area or room, a library (and this does not have to be 'fancy' but it must have literature for the piano that caters for students at all levels of playing) and students should participate in the examination process of a recognized examination body (Blake).
While there were similarities in beliefs, there were differences. For example, Smith spoke of what he believed about exposing students to a variety of music and the impact of doing so. He stated:
The average Jamaican child is not exposed to music of different styles therefore, that child can become intolerant of what he/she considers to be a 'classical piece'. There needs to be, or what should be aimed for is a balanced use of both forms of music, i.e. classical and popular (Smith).
When questioned further on this statement, Smith revealed that he believes, and is concerned with developing students' tolerance of 'differences' i.e. racial, sexual or cultural differences, and that through music, this can be achieved.
Blake spoke about what he believed about exposing students to a variety of instruments and the impact of doing so. He stated:
If other instruments are taught in the piano studio, I believe this could be an advantage, for this exposes piano students to other instruments. They are also exposed to playing in parts in ensembles, and are also exposed to ensemble playing in general. These experiences can develop their listening and coordinating ability (Blake).
While at one level these beliefs seem different, greater analysis of the differences reveal a similarity. Which is, that both men believe in exposing students to variety, variety in style and type of music taught, and in instruments they encounter during training.
What teaching strategies are utilised by participants?
Piano teaching is dominated by individual/one-to-one and small-group teaching (O'Neill, 2003; Daniel, 2004). These dominant teaching strategies are also utilised by the participants in this study. Smith however, used only the individual/one-to-one strategy. He states:
I only give individual instruction. This gives students a longer time on the instrument. I also use the advance student in the studio to teach the beginners. I do supervise what takes place though. I believe that students learn better from other students and I don't see doing this as a disadvantage to the development of the beginning students (Smith).
When asked why he chose this particular teaching strategy, he said that it was always done that way, and that was the way he was taught. This supports the thought of Daniel (2004) who insists that piano teachers use the individual/one-to-one teaching strategy because of their personal experience of being taught that way. Daniel (2004) states:
The literature reveals that approaches to piano teaching often emerge from personal experience, and several authors reflect upon the fact that experience of instrumental teaching is a major influence on the choice of teaching approach... Mills and Smith (2003) give evidence of this in a recent study where 57% of participants stated that the primary influence on their teaching approach was the way they were taught (p.24)
In contrast, Blake uses primarily a small-group teaching strategy. This gives each student in the group a short time at the piano, while the others watched, listened, and are encouraged to ask questions. When asked why he uses this teaching strategy he points to economic reasons. Blake's students' intake is sporadic. So, using this strategy allows him to at least 'break-even' at the end of each month. Additionally, he made the point that sometimes the economic situation of students cause them to opt for small-group teaching. Blake states:
Sometimes economics encourage the use of small-group teaching, for the student may say 'I really want to do piano lesson but I can't afford ten dollars per hour, but I can do five dollars,' 'what can you do for me?' In these cases, I place them in the small-group sessions (Blake).
Computer assisted teaching strategy, for example state-of-the-art interactive music software are not utilised by the participants due to cost, and to a lesser degree, the disposition of the teachers who hold dear the traditional forms or teaching strategy i.e., individual/one-to-one and small-group.
What assessment methods do participants utilize?
The respondents in this study engaged in student assessment. For example, Smith states:
I take in about eight students at the beginning of each year. I watch their progress and then ask those who are not progressing as I am expecting, to leave, I usually give the parents a letter or if they are adults, I give them the letter explaining my actions and request. I always believe that there will be others to fill the openings created (Smith).
In his assessment and decision to keep or dismiss a student, Smith also takes into consideration their progress in external examinations and their overall deportment and behavior at the studio.
Blake, on the other hand, assesses his students, but does not dismiss those underperforming. Here too, it is a matter of economics, for he needs the students to keep the studio running. So, in face-to-face sessions, he encourages underperforming students and telephones those who have missed a number of sessions to encourage them to return. The need to motivate students to continue their piano lesson, and not just for economic reasons, is supported by Houser (2006) who states that the piano teacher should wear the "hat of a daily motivator", motivating not just students, but 'self'.
The need to encourage students' self-assessment was also mentioned by one participant. For example, when asked if he taught students how to assess themselves Blake stated:
Yes! They will not have the teacher for the rest of their lives. A teacher should teach a student how to be independent of the teacher. It is important that they are helped to correct themselves. A beginner needs to learn how to listen to him/herself, learn correct note values, proper posture and hand position before he/she would be able to self-assess (Blake).
One thing is obvious, it is that assessment and the outcomes are highly subjective, for much is left to the discretion and professional judgment of the teacher in determining what aspect of the students' learning to assess and how to utilize the results of the assessment.
Summary of findings
So what beliefs about teaching are held by these local piano teachers in Jamaica? What teaching strategies do they utilize? And what assessment methods do they utilize? Answers to these questions are displayed below:
Participants' beliefs about piano teaching
Participants' teaching strategies
Participant students' assessment process utilised
Implications of the findings for piano teaching and teachers
Firstly, the study points to the need for local piano teachers to deliberately explore the potential of state-of-the-art computer-assisted teaching strategies and not just as complementary to the traditional strategies but also as a principal methodology. For example, they could incorporate 'Finale' or 'Sibelius' music notation programmes which allow students to notate their compositions and 'Cakewalk' which is mainly a music recording program which allows them to record and create professionally sounding pieces. Zdechlik (2003) made the point that generally, technology should be included in any pedagogy. However, she also states that at the very least, independent teachers of "tomorrow" need to know how to create a website and personalize tutorial help for their private students on these websites. The teachers' website can be used to re-enforce concepts that are already being taught and provide additional exercises and practice drills. Another advantage of the use of technology, primarily a computer assisted teaching strategy is that, if creatively merged with the human element, it can create a learning environment that powerfully addresses students' individual differences and needs (Zdechlik, 2003).
Secondly, the study highlights the need to further examine piano teachers' preference for the individualized instructional strategy over and above small-group. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these for teachers, students and instrumental teaching? Haddon (2011), in the conclusion of her study, holds that "tradition of one-to-one lessons has led to a generally unquestioning attitude as to the efficacy of this learning strategy" (p. 82). Thirdly, piano teachers need to teach students how to self-assess. This is necessary, for teachers should teach so that students become independent learners. Fourthly, piano teachers should explore and incorporate into their teaching, the idea of developing not just future musicians but individuals who are tolerant of cultural, social, economic and religious differences.
Conclusion
This study provides readers with a quick view into the beliefs held, and teaching strategies and assessment methods utilised by two piano teachers on the island of Jamaica. Relatively general statements in these regards were made. However, given the nature of this small scale research which includes a small sample size, large-scale generalization was neither appropriate nor was it the outcome sought. While this study provides findings that might be similarly obtained from like groups or individuals and situations elsewhere, and sufficient details of the research context, data collection, and analysis provided, it is left to readers to make their own judgment about transferability of the findings to other contexts.
Readers should also consider that the study covered a number of areas that could easily form the core concerns of three separate case studies. In this study, these complex areas have been examined from a narrow empirical perspective, that is, two participants and my own. However, given the limited financial resources, this narrow focus made the study both manageable and achievable.
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